Why Should We Ban Handguns In The United States Essays - Firearms

Why Should We Ban Handguns in the United States Recently in Michigan a six-year-old brought a handgun to school and shot a classmate and killed her. In 1990 there were 23,438 homicides in the United States, 9,923 due to handguns (418). This was one of the points that Nicholas Dixon brings up in his article, "Why Should We Ban Handguns in the United States". Dixon's argues for the ban of handguns in the United States, with the complete ban outweighing the negative effects. He does not argue for the outright ban of all guns, that is questioning the Second Amendment's right to bear arms. Arguing the complete ban of all guns would be impossible which is why he stays to strictly handguns. Dixon's line of reason is that if we reduce the handgun population, we will reduce the handgun violence, which will lower the number of violent crimes (418). Handguns were chosen to be the gun of choice to be banned because of its easiness to be concealed. The handguns were also chosen because they were seen to be the primary cause of the violent crimes in America. In an International comparison the U.S. had a significantly higher rate of homicide, than all countries included (419). This was attributed to the more lenient laws that are in the U.S. more than anywhere else. The comparison of Seattle to Vancouver is used to present this point more efficiently. The two cities are similar in almost all aspects, the only difference being that Canada has stricter gun laws (421). In short Dixon's argument is in order to reduce the number of violent crimes in the U.S., we need to decrease the number of handgun owners, which will lower handgun violence. Even though criminal offenders would still have guns, the amount available would be significantly decreased. The idea behind the ban is to lower the " overall ?pool' of guns" (422). Lowering the "pool" of guns I feel that this will not lead to a decrease in the amount of violent crimes in America. The violent crimes that were limited to handguns will then be transferred to crimes using other kinds of guns. The issue of other guns that are not "long guns" (418) is not taken into consideration. There are guns that are not considered handguns or "long guns", that can still be concealed. The semi-automatic guns that are on the street today are more violent than the handguns that are being discussed. That exclusion can represent a large percentage of the violent crimes that take place. Also taking into consideration the fact that criminals own guns illegally through theft is left out. If the law abiding citizens were able to still buy guns than who is to say that they would not buy them and sell them to the criminals? Dixon argues for a ban For those with prior convictions leaving the law-abiding gun owner undisturbed (422). This point also goes back to the idea of theft, which might create more household break-ins, increasing violence. The issue of gun control in America is a very strong issue for many different reasons. Dixon's hypothetical argument for the ban of handguns presents solutions to lower the amount of violent crimes. Although that lowering the population of handguns might decrease the number of violent crimes there is no way to know for certain that it will.

Free Essays on Abuse Or Neglect

Abuse or Neglect When most people think of child maltreatment, they usually think of one general category concerning any type of harm inflicted upon a child. What most people do not realize is there is a second category known as child neglect. Child neglect happens to be the most common form of child maltreatment, and sometimes the most overlooked. Child abuse and child neglect both share some common traits. Both categories are punishable by law, carrying heavy penalties in court. They each cause developmental issues physically, socially, and emotionally. Also, child abuse and child neglect are equally detrimental and could cause the death of a child. Child abuse and child neglect, even with their similarities, have very different definitions and characteristics. Child abuse is any intended or actual harm done to a child by the parent or primary caregiver. A child being physically, sexually, or emotionally abused would fall under the category of child abuse. Child neglect is the parent or primary caregiver denying a child his or her basic needs. Abandoning a child or failing to provide adequate food, shelter, or clothing is child neglect. Even failing to provide educational and health services for a child would be considered child neglect. Child abuse and child neglect, however similar, are two different forms of child maltreatment. They each deserve their own category to make it easier to recognize, define, and judge the exact extent of wrong done to a child.... Free Essays on Abuse Or Neglect Free Essays on Abuse Or Neglect Abuse or Neglect When most people think of child maltreatment, they usually think of one general category concerning any type of harm inflicted upon a child. What most people do not realize is there is a second category known as child neglect. Child neglect happens to be the most common form of child maltreatment, and sometimes the most overlooked. Child abuse and child neglect both share some common traits. Both categories are punishable by law, carrying heavy penalties in court. They each cause developmental issues physically, socially, and emotionally. Also, child abuse and child neglect are equally detrimental and could cause the death of a child. Child abuse and child neglect, even with their similarities, have very different definitions and characteristics. Child abuse is any intended or actual harm done to a child by the parent or primary caregiver. A child being physically, sexually, or emotionally abused would fall under the category of child abuse. Child neglect is the parent or primary caregiver denying a child his or her basic needs. Abandoning a child or failing to provide adequate food, shelter, or clothing is child neglect. Even failing to provide educational and health services for a child would be considered child neglect. Child abuse and child neglect, however similar, are two different forms of child maltreatment. They each deserve their own category to make it easier to recognize, define, and judge the exact extent of wrong done to a child....

The Complete Guide to SAT Grammar Rules

The Complete Guide to SAT Grammar Rules SAT / ACT Prep Online Guides and Tips Even though the English language is complex, the SAT tests a specific set of grammar rules. Furthermore, it tests these rules the same way, over and over again. In this complete guide, we've compiled acomprehensive list of SAT grammar rules you need to know to ace the SAT Writing and Language section. If you master all these rules and practice them with realistic questions, you'll have a huge advantage on SAT Writing and Language. Unlike other guides, oursfocuses on providing you with lots of examples to help you understand how the grammar rule will show up on the SAT. After all, you need to master the SAT format to do well on the SAT! Concision and Redundancy There are times when saying something twice is needed: for emphasis, to review a difficult topic, or to explain something more clearly.The SAT, however, is all about being as succinct and to the point as possible. Your ability to edit the fat out of sentences is tested in three ways:fixing overly wordy phrases, finding redundancies, and combining two simple sentences into a more complex one. Overly WordyPhrases The SAT deeply believes in Shakespeare's maxim that â€Å"brevity is the soul of wit†: if you can say the same thing with fewer words,do it. It’s tempting to think that when a sentence uses a multi-word phrase where a single word will do, the sentence sounds formal or more academic. But this is not the case.Often, one word is better than many words(examples 1 and2). Sometimes, a sentence might use words that don’t serve any purpose and don’t even need to be replaced but rather deleted altogether (examples 3 and4). Examples Error:Thinking in a manner more general, we can say that good schools enable people to learn more. Fix:Generally, we can say that good schools enable people to learn more. Error: The company might not be awarded the contract because it lacks production facilities, making ita worse choicefrom a theoretical way of speaking. Fix: The company might not be awarded the contract because it lacks production facilities, making ita worse choicetheoretically. Error: Although hesitant to challenge herself at first, the student decided to enroll in threeAP courses, twohonors courses,and an intensive art course on top of that. Fix: Although hesitant to challenge herself at first, the student decided to enroll in threeAP courses, twohonors courses,and an intensive art course. Error: When the audience stood to applaud the speaker, it was clear that her words had hada marvelous, even stupendous, effecton the crowd. Fix: When the audience stood to applaud the speaker, it was clear that her words had hada marvelous effecton the crowd. Redundancy If a sentence expresses the same bit of information two or more times,it’s considered redundant.Pick the best way of stating the necessary fact and delete the repetition. Examples Words or phrases that mean the same thing as each other are underlined. Error: The stock market mightrepeatits drop and rise patternagain, warns the financial forecast. Fix: The stock market mightrepeatits drop and rise pattern, warns the financial forecast. Error:Soona relative calm period followedquicklyafter the brunt of the cyclone had passed. Fix:A relative calm period followed quicklyafter the brunt of the cyclone had passed. Error: Management was surprised to seeabiannualuptick in salestwice each year. Fix: Management was surprised to see a biannual uptick in sales. Combining Simple Sentences Sometimes, in order to write with concision, you have tocombine simple or related sentences into one.Don’t worry about keeping word order, as this kind of revision often requires you to shift things around. To combine sentences correctly, ask yourself the following questions: Is there a person, place, thing, or concept that both sentences are talking about?If so, you can make one sentence into a dependent clause of the other through the repeated noun (example 1). Is there a chronological sequence that the two sentences are describing?Then you can make one into a dependent clause of the other using prepositions such asbefore, after,andfollowing(example 2). Does one sentence define the other?Combine them by inserting whatever is being defined into the defining sentence (example 3). Examples The nouns, chronology, or definitions used to combined the sentences are underlined. Error: The voting rate has not decreased amonguneducated citizens.Uneducated voterscontinue to vote for better schools. Fix: The voting rate has not decreased amonguneducated citizens, whocontinue to vote for better schools. Error: Young musicians are encouraged to perfect their techniques and skills through their conservatory training.After this, they can start their careers in small, local orchestras. Fix:After perfecting their techniques and skills through their conservatory training, young musicians can start their careers in small, local orchestras. Error: The conclusion scientistscame to is the idea that instead of being made up of particles, matter is actually made out of one-dimensional objects called strings.This is string theory. Fix:The conclusion scientistscame to is string theory, the idea thatinstead of being made up of particles, matter is actually made out of one-dimensional objects called strings. Redundancy: good for mountain climbing, bad for writing. Idioms and Conventional Expressions The SAT tests your knowledge of common English usage, includingtwo types of idioms. First, there areexpressions that mean something different from the actual words being used(such asraining cats and dogsorkick the bucket). Secondly, there areshort phrases or groups of words thatalwaysgo together(such asstumble onorkeep at bay). You'll also be asked to distinguish amongfrequently confused homonyms- that is, words that sound like each other but are used in different circumstances as they mean different things. One common example isbearvsbare. Verbal Phrases The SAT particularly loves one type of idiom called verbal phrases, which areverb + preposition pairs,andwants to check that you know for sure which preposition is correct. Examples Error: The show wasfollowed onan encore. Fix: The show wasfollowed byan encore. Error: She isresponsible ofreturning her library books. Fix: She isresponsible forreturning her library books. Error: One shouldrefrain fortexting while driving. Fix: One shouldrefrain fromtexting while driving. PrepositionalIdioms These are just like verbal phrases except they don’t involve verbs; rather, they're groups of words thatalwaysend on a specific preposition. Examples Error: The translucent sculptureused light as ameans throughconnecting viewers standing across from each other. Fix: The translucent sculptureused light as ameans ofconnecting viewers standing across from each other. Error:In accordance tothese findings, future research will focus on analyzing the effect of facial expressions on mirror neurons. Fix:In accordance withthese findings, future research will focus on analyzing the effect of facial expressions on mirror neurons. Commonly Confused Words English hasa lot of words that sound similar to each other but mean very different things.Here is averyincomplete list of examples of these words (you can find more by searching for â€Å"commonly confused words† on Google): Accept:to receive(verb)Except:with the exclusion of(preposition) Affect:to influence(verb);emotional response(noun)Effect:result(noun);to cause(verb) Beside:close to; next toBesides:except for; in addition to Complement:something that completes(noun);to pair well with(verb)Compliment:praise, flattery(noun) Eminent:prominentImminent:about to happen Precede:to come beforeProceed:to continue, to keep going Sight:scene, view, picture, being able to seeSite:place, location; a web pageCite:to quote, to point to evidence Then:an adverb denoting timeThan:a conjunction used in comparisons Examples Error: After losing his hearing, Beethoven had to rely on his imagination to hear his music, ratherthenlistening to musicians perform it. Fix: After losing his hearing, Beethoven had to rely on his imagination to hear his music, ratherthanlistening to musicians perform it. Error: Despite hours of work, the web administration team was unable to restore thesightafter the denial of service attack. Fix: Despite hours of work, the web administration team was unable to restore thesiteafter the denial of service attack. Error: The presidential candidate used rhetorical flourishes to greataffectin his speech and received a standing ovation. Fix: The presidential candidate used rhetorical flourishes to greateffectin his speech and received a standing ovation. Language Formality When writing for school, work, or publication in a news or scientific journal, you have to use formal English.This means you need toavoid slang and words and phrases that sound too casual.It’s important to keep each sentence at the same language elevation. Examples Error:A bunchof guys doing experimentswas able to synthesize a lithium-ion battery smaller than a grain of sand. Fix:A team of researcherswas able to synthesize a lithium-ion battery smaller than a grain of sand. Error: In 1559, at London’s Westminster Abbey, Elizabeth Tudor, the 25-year-old daughter of Henry VIII and Anne Boleyn,got to becomeQueen Elizabeth I. Fix: In 1559, at London’s Westminster Abbey, Elizabeth Tudor, the 25-year-old daughter of Henry VIII and Anne Boleyn,was crownedQueen Elizabeth I. Inappropriate informality won't get you into the duke's exclusive club either. Conjunctions and Conjunctive Adverbs Conjunctions and conjunctive adverbsare words that explain how two clauses in a sentence, or how to two or more successive sentences, relate to one another. The SAT checks your ability to use conjunctions and conjunctive adverbs toclarify cause and effect or logicwithin sentences. Explanation Some conjunctions link events in a cause-and-effect relationship to point outwhat happened as a result of something else.Here are some examples of these words, along with their meanings: Because:what has just been said is true as a consequence of what is about to be said Thereforeandhence:it follows from what has just been said that For exampleandfor instance: here is evidence that backs up the previous argument Whereby:by which; using theidea/principle/concept just mentioned; by means of Consequently:directly following the thing that has just been described Examples The incorrect conjunctions are in bold, while the correct ones are underlined. Error: Recent advances in medicine include a new MRI technique for detecting heart damage in chemotherapy patients.However,doctors will be able to see heart defects earlier and more effectively. Fix: Recent advances in medicine include a new MRI technique for detecting heart damage in chemotherapy patients.Consequently, doctors will be able to see heart defects earlier and more effectively. (Doctors can see better as a result of the new MRI test.) Error:Not onlyhave archaeologists in Britain unearthed several well-preserved Bronze Age dwellings, we are getting new insight into domestic life 3,000 years ago. Fix:Becausearchaeologists in Britain have unearthed several well-preserved Bronze Age dwellings, we are getting new insight into domestic life 3,000 years ago. (We are getting insight as a result of dwellings being unearthed.) Error: Foreshadowing, a literary techniquewhenan author hints at what will happen later in the text, is a useful tool for setting the right atmosphere. Fix: Foreshadowing, a literary techniquewherebyan author hints at what will happen later in the text, is a useful tool for setting the right atmosphere. (An author hints by means of foreshadowing.) Contradiction or Digression Other conjunctions can be useful for describing anegative or opposing relationship between events.These words can explain that something happened despite something else, or even though common sense would have not predicted it. They can also indicate that the argument is shifting to a different point. However:introduces a statement/idea that contradicts what has just been said On the one hand, on the other hand:presents two ideas that oppose each other (thesealwaysgo together) But:despite what has just been said, here is information to the contrary Nevertheless:in spite of what has just been said Aside from:the example that follows is an exception to what is being discussed Whileandwhereas:in contrast or comparison with the fact that Examples The incorrect conjunctions are in bold, while the correctones are underlined. Error: The pianist had not had nearly enough time to study and practice the sonata,andshe played it flawlessly. Fix: The pianist had not had nearly enough time to study and practice the sonata,butshe played it flawlessly. (The flawlessness happened despite the lack of practice time.) Error:Just ascrayons are a medium generally reserved for young children, professional artists have used them to great effect. Fix:Thoughcrayons are a medium generally reserved for young children, professional artists have used them to great effect. (That professional artists have used crayons contrasts withthe fact that crayons are usually for children.) Similarity and Emphasis The final category of conjunctive adverbs connects things that areequal or similar,or adds examples that emphasize the direction of the argument. Moreover:as an additional- potentially more convincing or important- matter Just as:in comparison to; similar to Likewise:in the same way; also Not only, but also:presents two ideas that support and emphasize each other (thesealwaysgo together) Examples The incorrect conjunctions are in bold, while the right ones are underlined. Error: Investing money is one way to plan for the future.Hence,another good long-term planning option is to take advantage of a retirement savings account. Fix: Investing money is one way to plan for your future.Likewise, another good long-term planning option is to take advantage of a retirement savings account. (The word â€Å"another† means that two similar things are being discussed.) Error: Dressing to attract attention can affect the way people perceive you.Nevertheless,it can be inappropriate depending on the context. Fix: Dressing to attract attention can affect the way people perceive you.Moreover, it can be inappropriate depending on the context. (The inappropriateness is an additional, more significant effect of attention-getting clothing.) Honestly, this is in no way connected to conjunctive adverbs. However, look- cute! Punctuation There are manypunctuationrules in English, but, fortunately, the SAT doesn’t test all of them. Instead, the test focuses on several specific types. Punctuating Modifiers Phrases that modify or describe a part of a sentence arepunctuated differently depending on whether they are an essential or nonessential part of the sentence. If the sentence needs the modifier in order to make sense, the modifier isrestrictiveanddoesn’tget surrounded by commas.If you can easily take out the modifier without losing the sentence’s meaning, the modifier isnonrestrictiveand should be surrounded by commas like this: Put one comma rightafteramodifier that starts a sentence. Put one comma rightbeforea modifier that ends a sentence. If the modifierappears in the middle of the sentence,surround itwith commas on both sides. Examples Incorrect and correct punctuation areunderlined. Error:US President, Barack Obama,will meet with his counterparts from the European countries for the multinational summit. Fix:US President Barack Obamawill meet with his counterparts from the European countries for the multinational summit. (Since â€Å"Barack Obama† is key to the sentence's meaning,no commas are needed.) Error:The daisy, a perennial plant, sometimes known as bruisewort,grows low to the ground. Fix:The daisy, a perennial plant sometimes known as bruisewort,grows low to the ground. (The modifier just needs to be surrounded by commas and doesn’t need any commas inside it.) Error:Started on a whim by an eccentric resident;the project to clean up the abandoned lot soon became a popular neighborhood pastime. Fix:Started on a whim by an eccentric resident,the project to clean up the abandoned lot soon became a popular neighborhood pastime. (The modifier should be set off by a comma, not a semicolon.) Error: This last part of the minuet should be playedwith steadily increasing volume, or crescendo;until the final chord. Fix: This last part of the minuet should be playedwith steadily increasing volume, or crescendo,until the final chord. (â€Å"Crescendo† is beingdefined, so it needs to be set off by commas, not semicolons.) Using Dashes Think of dashes as being kind of like parentheses.Dashes separate out a sentence piece that is explanatory but not crucial,like an aside or something muttered under your breath. Sometimes this piece is a digressive thought; sometimes it's a list of examples. Typically, the phraseinside the dashes has commas in it, so dashes are the best way to set it off from the rest of the sentence.If the phraseis in the middle of the sentence, it must be surrounded by dashes onbothsides. Examples Incorrect and correct punctuation areunderlined. Error: The hairstylist picked up thescissors- the kind that usually sit in the jar of blue liquid,and started to snip bits of hair off his client’s head. Fix: The hairstylist picked up thescissors- the kind that usually sit in the jar of blue liquid- and started to snip bits of hair off his client’s head. Error: The best hotel concierges havemany skills: knowledge of foreign customs, the ability to speak several languages, and a charming manner,that put even the most diffident guests at ease. Fix: The best hotel concierges havemany skills- knowledge of foreign customs, the ability to speak several languages, and a charming manner- that put even the most diffident guests at ease. Error: After readers foundthe errors, all 243 of them- the publishing company was forced to issue a reprint of the book. Fix: After readers foundthe errors- all 243 of them- the publishing company was forced to issue a reprint of the book. Punctuating â€Å"Such As† The phrasesuch asintroduces a series of examplesto back up a point that’s just been made. The correct way to punctuate it is to put a comma beforesuch as,and then no comma before the first list item or example. Examples Incorrect and correct punctuation areunderlined. Error: Teachers give out a variety ofhomework assignments, such as, worksheets,hands-on projects, and online quizzes. Fix: Teachers give out a variety ofhomework assignments, such as worksheets,hands-on projects, and online quizzes. Error: The antique book shop also sold otherpaper ephemera such as, mapsand newspapers. Fix: The antique book shop also sold otherpaper ephemera, such as mapsand newspapers. Formatting Lists A list is a series of people, ideas, objects, actions, or conditions that follow one another, play the same role in the sentence, and aretypically separated by commas.In fact, that last sentence has two lists: â€Å"people, ideas, objects, actions, or conditions† and â€Å"follow one another, play the same role in the sentence, and are separated by commas.† See what I did there? Punctuation rules for lists are as follows: They should beseparated by commas,with a comma coming before the â€Å"and† or â€Å"or† that precedes the last list item:dogs, cats, gerbils, and fish. If one of the list items has a comma within it, then all the list items should beseparated by semicolons instead:shaggy, purebred dogs; white cats; soft, cuddly gerbils; and fish. Examples Incorrect and correct punctuation areunderlined. Error: The market stall sold ripeapples, cherries; andsometimes even apricots. Fix: The market stall sold ripeapples, cherries, andsometimes even apricots. Error: The class focused on programminglanguages, such as Python; algorithms; anddocumentation. Fix: The class focused on programminglanguages, such as Python, algorithms, anddocumentation. Using Colons Colons are used in two different ways. First, they can indicate thata list is coming up,and that after the list the sentence will end: Here is my list of acceptable pets: dogs, cats, gerbils, and fish. Second, they are used to indicate that anexplanation, a definition, or an example of what has just been saidis coming: My search for the perfect pet came down to man's best friend: a dog. Examples Incorrect and correct punctuation areunderlined. Error: It’s easy to explain why many 12th graders start taking school less seriouslytoward the end of the year; senioritis. Fix: It’s easy to explain why many 12th graders start taking school less seriouslytoward the end of the year: senioritis. ("Senioritis" is the defined term.) Error: The more I cook at home, the more kitchen techniquesI learn, knife skills,mise en place, and cooking several dishes simultaneously. Fix: The more I cook at home, the more kitchen techniquesI learn: knife skills,mise en place, and cooking several dishes simultaneously. (â€Å"Learn† introducesa list.) Error: Consider lobsters,for example, with age,they only get stronger and more fertile. Fix: Consider lobsters,for example: with age,they only get stronger and more fertile. ("Example" introducesan explanation.) Using Semicolons Semicolons have two basic functions. First, in lists theyseparate items that have commas: We atemushrooms, which had been picked in a nearby forest; herbs, nuts, and berries foraged from a public park; and homegrown apples. Second, theyfix run-on sentencesby separating two independent clauses without a conjunction: Jim rode his bike; Mary walked. Examples Incorrect and correct punctuation areunderlined. Error: The State Department completed threeassignments: diplomatic talks, led by an expert in armscontrol, a bilateralmeeting, chaired by an assistantdirector, anda state visit. Fix:The State Department completedthreeassignments: diplomatic talks, led by an expert in armscontrol; a bilateralmeeting, chaired by an assistantdirector; anda state visit. (Two of the three list items have commas in them, so they are separated by semicolons.) Error:The architect worked on the model allnight, he wasbleary-eyed during the presentation. Fix:Thearchitect worked on the model allnight; he wasbleary-eyed during the presentation. (These are independent clauses, so they should be connected bya semicolon.) Semicolon, meet semi-cake. Sentences Sentences are made up of groups of words that are called clauses.There are two types of clauses: independentand dependent. An independent clausecan function as a complete sentence because it has a subject-verb pair and does not start with a word or phrase that makes the clause dependent, such aswhenorbecause. Meanwhile,a dependent clausemustbe attached to an independent clause to be part of a complete sentence. The SAT tests three different types of clause-related situations:fixing sentence fragments, splitting up run-on sentences, and using a dependent clause as the subject of a sentence. Sentence Fragments A sentence fragment isa sentence made of anything less than an independent clause.To fix it, we either connect the fragment to an independent clause (examples 1 and 2), or add the missing subject or verb (example 3). Examples In these sentences,subjects are underlined and verbs are inbold. Error: To boost the number of women in STEM fields, including electrical, chemical, and industrial engineering. Fix: To boost the number of women in STEM fields, including electrical, chemical, and industrial engineering,senior female executivesalsoactas mentors to young women. Error: From diving hard for every attempted shot to deftly throwing the ball to the most open defender. Fix: From diving hard for every attempted shot to deftly throwing the ball to the most open defender, thegoaliewas savingher team at a time when they needed her. Error: For the sake of a better experience at school, asking his adviser for a new room assignment. Fix: For the sake of a better experience at school, thefreshmanaskedhis adviser for a new room assignment. Run-on Sentences A run-on sentence is made ofmultiple independent clauses joined by only a comma or no punctuationat all. To find the correct answer on the SAT, look for an answer choice that uses one of these three fixes: If one independent clause is an explanation or definition of the other, adda word such asbecauseorwhichto the beginning of the explanation (examples 1 and2). If neither independent clause defines or explains the other, combine them with either a comma + conjunction (such asandorbut),orwith a semicolon (examples 3 and4). Alternately, split them up into two separate sentences (example 5). Examples The separation between the two independent clauses is marked with|, while the correction is underlined. Error: The dog Mary wants to put in the dog show is a beagle,|it is a medium-sized member of the hound family. Fix: The dog Mary wants to put in the dog show is a beagle,whichis a medium-sized member of the hound family. Error: The deli had no milk left after a rush of morning customers,|the owner rushed to order more. Fix:Becausethe deli had no milk left after a rush of morning customers, the owner rushed to order more. Error: My favorite Mediterraneanspreadishummusitisvery garlicky. Fix: My favorite Mediterraneanspreadishummus, asitisvery garlicky. Error: Air plants like the Tillandsia species are tolerant of a wide range of climates,|they thrive in room temperatures. Fix: Air plants like the Tillandsia species are tolerant of a wide range ofclimates; theythrive in room temperatures. Error: Deciding which play to put on is only the first step,|even a great script won’t succeed without a well-selected cast and a set design that works with the director’s vision. Fix: Deciding which play to put on is only the firststep. Evena great script won’t succeed without a well-selected cast and a set design that works with the director’s vision. DependentClauses as Sentence Subjects Sometimes, instead of having a simple noun for a subject, a sentence canuse a whole dependent clause as a subject. When this happens,treat the dependent clause as a singular noun. For instance, in the first example, the clausewhoever came up with the idea to put solar panels on rooftopsis the subject of the sentence. Youcan tell by using this trick:replace the clause with a singular noun, such asAlbert Einstein,to see whether the sentence still works. When we do this here, we can see thatAlbert Einstein are geniusesdoesn't work; therefore, the verb needs to be singular to match the subject. Examples The subordinate clause that is the subject is underlined, whilethe verb it's doing is bold. Error: Whoever came up with the idea to put solar panels on rooftops are geniuses. Fix:Whoever came up with the idea to put solar panels on rooftopsisa genius. Error: That cleaning a kitchen is a repetitive chore which makes it especially thankless. Fix:That cleaning a kitchen is a repetitive choremakesit especially thankless. Does his over-reliance on your milk and cookies make hima dependent Claus? Faulty Modifiers A modifier is a word or phrase that describes (i.e., modifies) something. There are two kinds of modifier problems tested on the SAT: dangling modifiers and misplaced modifiers. Dangling Modifiers A dangling modifier is a descriptive phrasethat begins a sentence, has a comma after it, and has the noun it describes not placed right after the comma. In the first example below, the modifier coating the sidewalk is supposed to describe the snow. However, since we is the first word after the comma, the sentence makes it sound like we are the ones coating the sidewalk. Examples Modifiers are underlined, while the nouns being correctly and incorrectly modified are in bold. Error: Coating the sidewalk, we trudged through the heavy snow. Fix: We trudged through the heavy snow coating the sidewalk. Error: Long and tangled, it was difficult to comb the child's hair. Fix: Long and tangled, the child's hair was difficult to comb. Error: Exhausted and weak, the soldiers' uniforms were covered in frost. Fix: Exhausted and weak, the soldiers were covered in frost. Misplaced Modifiers A misplaced modifier is a descriptive phrasethat's not close enough to the thing it's supposed to bedescribing, making it sound like it'sreferring tothe wrong thing. In the first example below, the modifier on the sale rack is supposed to show where the jacket is hanging. However, since it's been placed next to too small, the sentence seems to say that it's the way the jacket was hanging that is too small (instead of the jacket itself). To correct it, we move the modifier closer to the noun it describes. Examples Modifiers are underlined, while the thingsbeing correctly and incorrectly modified are in bold. Error: The jacket was too small on the sale rack. Fix: The jacket on the sale rack was too small. Error: Ray wore his one-collared shirt to the job interview, which was stained with mustard. Fix: Ray wore his one-collared shirt, which was stained with mustard, to the job interview. Error: She handed out brownies to children wrapped in foil. Fix: She handed out brownies wrapped in foil to children. There I was, just dangling in the breeze like a modifier ... Parallel Construction To use parallel construction is to writea list in which all the items have the same grammatical format.For example, if two things in a list are verbs ending in -ing, the third item should also be a verb ending in -ing. If oneitem in a list is aprepositional phrase,then the second item should also be a prepositional phrase. Examples Words or phrases that are already parallel are in bold, whereas those that need to be corrected to parallel are underlined. Error: The couple bought the concert tickets, arrived at the theater, and they sat down in their seats. Fix: The couple bought the concert tickets, arrived at the theater, and sat down in their seats. Error: Painting your bedroom requires picking a color, measuring the walls, get the right tools, and buying paint. Fix: Painting your bedroom requires picking a color, measuring the walls, getting the right tools, and buying paint. Error: The workshop had a whiteboard on one wall,a set of shelves against another wall, and a third wall had many drawers for tools. Fix: The workshop had a whiteboard on one wall,a set of shelves against another wall, and many drawers for tools along a third wall. Error: Her essay focused on characters' reactionsto bad news and showing how these characters handled success. Fix: Her essay focused on characters' reactions to bad news and showed how these characters handled success. Set up parallel tracks so your sentence train can roll safely on its way. Plurals and Possessives The SAT will test your understanding of how to make nouns plural (when there is two or more of something) and how to make them possessive (when you have to explain that something belongs to something or someone else). To make a plural nounthat doesn't own anything, add s to the end of asingular noun: one student, but three students To make a possessive singular noun, add apostrophe + s to the end of a singular noun: the pencil that belongs to one student= the student’s pencil To make a possessive plural noun, add an apostrophe to the end of a plural noun: the classroom that belongs to three students = the students’ classroom Examples Error: Every morning, many hawk’s circled the field, looking for prey. Fix: Every morning, many hawks circled the field, looking for prey. Error: The more I read the novel, the closer I felt to the authors’ point of view. Fix: The more I read the novel, the closer I felt to the author’s point of view. Error: Art Deco furniture is marked by the artists use of geometric shapes, curves, strong colors, and new materials, such as plastics. Fix: Art Deco furniture is marked by the artist’s use of geometric shapes, curves, strong colors, and new materials, such as plastics. That man and that jacket belong to that dog- they are that dog's belongings. Pronouns A pronoun is a part of speech stands in for anoun. For example, the pronoun she can stand in for the woman or Queen Elizabeth. But unlike nouns, pronouns change their form if they're used in different ways.These are the ways that pronouns are tested on the SAT. Subject vs Object Pronouns Nouns and pronouns can be either the subjects or the objects of verbs. Subjects do verbs and objects have verbs done to them. For instance, in the sentence, "A dog chases its tail,"dogis the subject noun, chasesis the verb that it's doing, and tail is the object noun. Unlike nouns such asdog or tail, pronounschange form depending on whether they're subjects or objects. For example, in the phrase she likes him, the woman is the subject, so the pronoun is she. On the other hand,in the phrase he likes her, the woman is the object, so the pronoun changes toher. Subject Pronouns Object Pronouns I me you you he him she her it it we us they them If you’re trying to figure out whether to use a subject or object pronoun when dealing with a compound noun, one trick is to take out the other noun and try the sentence with just the pronoun- you’ll quickly know which is right. In the first example below, me ate dinner is clearly wrong. In the third example as well,sold cookies to I is obviously incorrect. Examples Error: Me and my parents ate dinner. Fix: My parents and I ate dinner. Error: The tourists asked my friends and I for directions. Fix: The tourists asked my friends and me for directions. Error: The Girl Scouts sold cookies to my sister and I. Fix: The Girl Scouts sold cookies to my sister and me. Who vs Whom Whois a relative pronoun which can start either a dependent or independent clause within a sentence.Whois used when the pronoun is the subject doing the action, whereaswhom isused when the pronoun is the object of the action. What's tricky about whois that figuring out whether to use its subject or object form doesn't depend on its antecedent. Instead, you have to see what rolewho is playing inside its own clause. For instance, in example 1, even though people is an object of the verb benefits, inside the clause who understand the tax code,who is the subject of the verb understand.On the other hand, in example 2, even though skydivers is the subject of the sentence, in the clause whom many people greatly admire, whom is the object of the verb admire. One trick is to replace the who or whom with I or me to see whether you need the subject or object form.In this case, me understand the tax codedoesn’t work, and neither does many people greatly admire I. Examples Subjects are bold, verbs are in italics, and objects are underlined. Error:The essay points out that the reduction in taxes only benefits those people whom understand the tax code. Fix:The essay points out that the reduction in taxes only benefits those people who understand the tax code. Error: Skydivers, who many people greatly admire, tend to be comfortable with risk-taking and in excellent physical shape. Fix: Skydivers, whom many people greatly admire, tend to be comfortable with risk-taking and in excellent physical shape. Pronouns and Antecedents Ifthere is a pronoun, it should be obvious what noun the pronoun is referring back to.If it's unclear which noun a pronoun is referring to, or if a pronoun has no antecedent, the sentence needs to be rewritten in one of two ways: either the pronoun can be replaced with a noun, or the phrase can be simplified. For instance, in example 1, this could refer either to Industrial Revolution, resistance group, mechanization, or labor force, so a noun is added. Meanwhile, in example 3, there is no antecedent for them, so the sentence has to be rewritten. Examples The unclear pronouns are in bold, while corrected pronouns and antecedents are underlined. Error: During the Industrial Revolution in England, a resistance groupsprang up to protest the mechanization of the labor force. Workers associated with this began to break and burn factory machinery to protest what they saw as unfair treatment. Fix: During the Industrial Revolution in England, a resistance groupsprang up to protest the mechanization of the labor force. Workers associated with this factionbegan to break and burn factory machinery to protest what they saw as unfair treatment. Error: The files arranged by the temporary workers were out of order, so management sent them back to the main office. Fix:The files arranged by the temporary workers were out of order, so management sent the filesback to the main office. Error: The amount of entertainment available is increasing steadily; soon there will be more than 5,000 shows for them to distribute to subscribers. Fix: The amount of entertainment available is increasing steadily; soon there will be more than 5,000 shows for distribution to subscribers. Pronoun and Antecedent Agreement Pronouns have to match their antecedents in various ways. This means that when we use pronouns more than once in a sentence, we have to use the same personthroughout.(To clarify: 1st person means I or we, 2nd person means you, and 3rd person means he, she, it, or they.) This also means that plural nouns are matched withplural pronouns, and singular pronouns refer back to singular nouns. Examples Mismatched pronouns and antecedents are in bold, while matching pronouns and antecedents are underlined. Error: If a person wants to succeed in corporate life, you have to know the rules of the game. Fix: If a person wants to succeed in corporate life, she has to know the rules of the game. Error: Like its distant oceanic relatives whales, hippopotamuses can alter their density to sink or float in water. Fix:Like their distant oceanic relatives whales, hippopotamuses can alter their density to sink or float in water. Error: After acquiring several new companies, the multinational corporation moved their headquarters to a state with more favorable tax loop holes. Fix:After acquiring several new companies, the multinational corporation moved its headquarters to a state with more favorable tax loop holes. That vs Who The basic concept behind these relative pronouns is simple: who is the pronoun for a person or people, and that is the pronoun for everything else. Examples Mismatched relative pronouns are in bold, while matching pronouns and antecedents are underlined. Error: Coaching can be difficult for peoplethat have a hard time planning strategy on the field. Fix: Coaching can be difficult for people who have a hard time planning strategy on the field. Error: The scientific establishment who rejected Giordano Bruno’s theory that the earth revolves around the sun later had to acknowledge its mistake. Fix: The scientific establishment that rejected Giordano Bruno’s theory that the earth revolves around the sun later had to acknowledge its mistake. Error: The decision was made bythe director, wantingto organize the group in a more efficient way. Fix:The decision was made bythe director, who wanted to organize the group in a more efficient way. Indefinite Pronouns Indefinite pronouns refer to a person, place, or thing that is unknown or unspecified.Many indefinite pronounsthat seem like they're referring to multiple things or people are actually singular. This means that they use singular forms of verbs: everyone is instead of everyone are (examples 1 and 2).This also means that any nouns that refer to them alsohave to be singular and not plural: no one wants to be a dropout instead of no one wants to be dropouts (examples 3 and 4). Person Place Thing everyone everybody everywhere everything someone somebody somewhere something anyone anybody anywhere anything no one nobody nowhere nothing each (of these) either (of these) neither (of these) Examples Pronouns and matching verbs or nouns are underlined, while mismatched verbs or nouns are in bold. Error: On big-budget movies, each of the actors have large, well-decorated trailers. Fix: On big-budget movies, each of the actors has a large, well-decorated trailer. Error: Every one of the experts invited to speak at the conference were unable to make it. Fix: Every one of the experts invited to speak at the conference was unable to make it. Error: Anyone thinking about becoming writers must be excellent readers. Fix: Anyone thinking about becoming a writer must be an excellent reader. Error: Either of these desks would be great surfaces to work on. Fix: Either of these desks would be a great surface to work on. Its/It’s,Their/They’re/There, Your/You’re, Whose/Who’s The different forms and abbreviations of these pronouns are frequently mixed up, but they're something you simply have to memorize.Here are some tricks to use if you're stuck: Take the abbreviation apart: does it is, you are, they are, or who is work in the sentence? Then use it’s, you’re, they’re, or who’s. If the sentence is trying to say that something belongs to something else, use its, your, their, or whose. If the sentence is trying to point to a specific or vague place, use there. Pronoun Definition Examples its belonging to it the puppy’s toy =its toy the leg of the table =its leg it’s it is the sky is cloudy =it is cloudy = it’s cloudy the book is long = it is long =it’s long their belonging to them the sisters’ bedroom =their bedroom the color of walls =their color they’re they are flowers are blooming = they are blooming = they’re blooming friends are great = they are great = they’re great there in/on that place existing somewhere in the world exist many trees= there are manytrees the pants are on the shelf = the pants are there your belonging to you this is my dinner, and this is your dinner you’re you are you are delighted = you’re delighted you are a student = you’re a student whose belonging to whom? I don’t know who owns this house = whose is this house? who’s who is who from the team is coming? = who’s coming? Examples Incorrect forms of these words are underlined, while the correct ones are bold. Error: Who could have known that Da Vinci’s most mysterious painting would become his most famous, with it’s unique half-smile forever expressing some unknowable emotion. Fix: Who could have known that Da Vinci’s most mysterious painting would become his most famous, with its unique half-smile forever expressing some unknowable emotion. Error: Your just like all the other Americans visiting England who think that cricket is closely related to baseball. Fix: You’re just like all the other Americans visiting England who think that cricket is closely related to baseball. Error: Having several books to return to the library, Maria checks they’re due dates to make sure she won’t have to pay any fines. Fix: Having several books to return to the library, Maria checks their due dates to make sure she won’t have to pay any fines. Error: Dismayed that no one agreed with his argument, the city councilman asked, â€Å"Whose with me on this?† Fix: Dismayed that no one agreed with his argument, the city councilman asked, â€Å"Who’s with me on this?† Error: Every study we have come across suggests that bicycles are an excellent way to get around: there economical, good for public health, and environmentally friendly. Fix: Every study we have come across suggests that bicycles are an excellent way to get around: they’re economical, good for public health, and environmentally friendly. Feeling overwhelmed by grammar is apparently part of the human condition. Here's a grammar book from 1526. Just imagine all those monks having to study pronouns in Latin ... Verbs There are twomain issues with verbs tested on the SAT: verb tenses and subject-verb agreement. Verb Tense There are ninebasic verb tenses, threefor each time period (present, past, future). Below are the basic tenses formed from the verbto sing.As you can see, some of the verb tensesare created by adding forms of the verbs have, be,and do. Time Period Verb Forms Present Simple Present: They sing.Present Continuous: They are singing.Present Perfect: They have sung. Past Simple Past: They sang.Past Continuous: They were singing.Past Perfect: They had sung. Future Future: They will sing.Future Continuous: They will be singing.Future Perfect: They will have sung. Generally, the idea is to keep verbs in a single sentence in the same time period, especiallyif a sentence is describing things that happen during the same time period (example 1). If a sentence contains a shift in chronological time, verb tenses should shift to account for the change in time (example 3). Examples Verbs in the same tense are underlined, while verbs in the wrong tense are in bold. Error: According to the cardiologist, since the patient’s arteries are (present)dangerously clogged with cholesterol deposits, the medical team had (past)to check for elevated blood pressure and other heart attack risks. Fix: According to the cardiologist, since the patient’s arteries are (present)dangerously clogged with cholesterol deposits, the medical team has (present)to check for elevated blood pressure and other heart attack risks. Error: Even though office hours had been(past) over for some time, the professor and her student are continuing (present)their productive work on the research project. Fix: Even though office hours have been(present) over for some time, the professor and her student are continuing (present)their productive work on the research project. Error: If the pace of technological advancements continues (present), in the future we ride(present) self-driving cars. Fix: If the pace of technological advancements continues (present), in the future we will ride(future) self-driving cars. Subject/Verb Agreement Nouns and verbs are both parts of speech with numbers and are written differently if they refer to just one thing or multiple things. One dog runs fast, for example, but two dogs run fast. Subject/verb agreement just means that the noun and verb have the same number (singular or plural).One point to remember is thatcollective nouns are singular (a â€Å"crowd of people laughs† instead of â€Å"crowd of people laugh†). A collective noun is a noun that stands for a group of things but is grammatically treated as a single unit (i.e., a singular noun). Examples Matching subjects and verbs are underlined, while verbs that don't match subjects are in bold. Error: A recent survey found that the furniture in most people's homes are mostly made of wood. Fix: A recent survey found that the furniture (singular) in most people's homes is (singular) mostly made of wood. Error: There isa beaker and three pipettes on the top shelf of the cupboard. Corrected: There are (plural) a beaker and three pipettes (plural) on the top shelf of the cupboard. Error: I am trying to read the name of the store across the street, but a crowd of people keep getting in the way. Fix: I am trying to read the name of the store across the street, but a crowd (singular) of people keeps (singular) getting in the way. After a poorly verbed pitch, the batter verbed the ball to midfield. The shortstop verbed to the left, verbing the ball just in time to verb the runner out. Illogical Comparisons There are two different kinds of comparisons that break the rules of logic. The first relies on the idea that you can only compare things that are alike in some way.One trick to spotting illogical comparisons is that they tend to happen when a sentence is comparing something that belongs to someone or something else by using the comparison word than. You have to make sure that the two things on either side of thethan are in the same category (examples 1 and 2). For instance, you can compare apples and oranges because both are fruits. But if both Stanley and Cora have apples, you can't say the following: I like Stanley's apples better than Cora. You'd have to say this: I like Stanley's apples better than Cora's apples. Or, more simply, this: I like Stanley's apples better than Cora's. The second kind of illogical comparison that the SAT likes to test is the notion that you can't compare something toallthings of that type.Instead, you can onlycompare that thing toall other things of that type (example 3). Examples The two things that each sentence is comparing are underlined. Error:Some regulators believe that new drugs should have to go through an even more rigorous testing process than patients who prefer the one currently in place. Fix:Some regulators believe that new drugs should have to go through an even more rigorous testing process than the one currently in place, which patients prefer. Error:Charles Dickens's epic novels, which are almost universally admired by readers and critics alike, are more sweeping than Jane Austen, who writes novels of manners. Fix:Charles Dickens's epic novels, which are almost universally admired by readers and critics alike, are more sweeping than Jane Austen'snovels of manners. Error: For astronauts, the moon is easier to get to than any space object. Fix:For astronauts, the moon is easier to get to than any other space object. You can compare the polar bear to the girls, but you can't compare the polar bear's favorite toy to the girls. Unless that is one extremely dangerous zoo. The Bottom Line: All SAT Grammar Rules You Should Know Here is a quick summary of all the SAT grammar rules we talked about in this article: Concision andRedundancy- the SAT is all about being as succinct as possible Overly WordyPhrases - often, one word is better than many;sometimes, extra wordsshould just be deleted Redundancy- if a sentenceexpresses the same bit of information two or more times,delete the repetition Combining Simple Sentences- make one sentence into a dependent clause of the other through arepeated noun,using prepositions such asbefore, after,orfollowing,orby inserting whatever is being defined into the defining sentence Idioms and Conventional Expressions Verbal Phrases- verb + preposition pairs thatalwaysgo together PrepositionalIdioms- groups of words thatalwaysend on specific prepositions Commonly Confused Words- English has a lot of homonyms (words that sound similar to each other but mean very different things) Language Formality- avoiding slang and words/phrases that sound too casual Conjunctions and Conjunctive Adverbs- words that explain how two clauses in a sentence or successive sentences relate to one another Explanation- conjunctions such asbecause, consequently,andfor examplelink events in a cause-and-effect relationship Contradiction or Digression- conjunctions such ashowever, but,andneverthelessdescribe a negative or opposing relationship between events Similarity and Emphasis- conjunctions such asmoreoverandlikewiseconnect things that are equal or similar, or add examples to an argument Punctuation Punctuating Modifiers- if the sentence needs a modifier in order to make sense, the modifier doesn’t needcommas, but if you cantake out the modifier without losing any meaning, the modifier should be surrounded by commas Using Dashes- separate out a word/phrase/clause that is explanatory but not crucial Punctuating â€Å"Such As†- put a comma beforesuch as(and no comma after it) Formatting Lists- list items aretypically separated by commas,with a comma before theandororthat precedes the last list item Using Colons- indicates a list is coming up and that after the list the sentence will end; also used to introduce an explanation, definition, or example Using Semicolons- separates list items that have commas; fixes run-on sentences by separating two independent clauses without a conjunction Sentences- made up ofindependentand dependent clauses Sentence Fragments- sentences made of anything less than an independent clause Run-on Sentences- multiple independent clauses joined by only a comma or no punctuation at all DependentClauses as Subjects- if a sentence uses a whole dependentclause as a subject, treat the dependent clause as a singular noun Faulty Modifiers- words or phrases that describe something Dangling Modifier- a descriptive phrase that begins a sentence, has a comma after it, and has the noun it describesnotplaced right after the comma Misplaced Modifier- a descriptive phrase that's not close enough to the thing it's describing, making it sound like it'sreferring tothe wrong thing Parallel Construction- a list in which all the items have the same grammatical format Plurals and Possessives- plural iswhen there are two or more of something;possessiveis when something belongs to something else Plural Noun- add s to the end of asingular noun Possessive Singular Noun- add apostrophe + sto the end of a singular noun Possessive Plural Noun- add an apostrophe to the end of a plural noun Pronouns- parts of speech that stand in for anoun (its antecedent) Subject vs Object Pronouns- pronounschange form depending on whether they're subjects or objects in a sentence Who vs Whom- whois the subject form;whom is the object form Pronouns and Antecedents- it should be obvious which noun eachpronoun is referring to Pronoun and Antecedent Agreement- pronouns have to match their antecedents' person and number That vs Who- who is for a person or people; that is for everything else Indefinite Pronouns- pronouns such as everyone that seemplural but are actually singular Its/It’s,Their/They’re/There, Your/You’re, Whose/Who’s- you have to memorize these homonyms Verbs- the SAT tests tense agreement and subject-verb agreement Verb Tense- keep verbs in a single sentence within the same time period: present, past, or future Subject/Verb Agreement- anoun and itsverb must have the same number (singular or plural) Illogical Comparisons- you can only compare things that are alike in some way, and you can't compare something toallthings of that type What's Next? Knowing the grammar rules is just the beginning. Check out our complete guide to SAT Writing for a comprehensive take on all the topics andstrategies you need to know for the SAT. Excelling on SAT Writing also requires a lot of practice,so make sure you use our complete list of official and high-quality unofficial SAT practice testsin your prep. Want an 800 on SAT Reading and Writing? First, getour comprehensive advice on how to study for the SAT. Then,read our detailed guides onhow to get a perfect Writing scoreand how to get a perfect Reading score. Want to improve your SAT score by 160 points? Check out our best-in-class online SAT prep classes. We guarantee your money back if you don't improve your SAT score by 160 points or more. Our classes are entirely online, and they're taught by SAT experts. If you liked this article, you'll love our classes. Along with expert-led classes, you'll get personalized homework with thousands of practice problems organized by individual skills so you learn most effectively. We'll also give you a step-by-step, custom program to follow so you'll never be confused about what to study next. Try it risk-free today:

Romanesque Architecture and Theology Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2750 words

Romanesque Architecture and Theology - Essay Example Jackson further explained that the church embraced the Romanesque architecture to a great deal, and the clergy afterward started to conduct schools using the arts where students could be taught the philosophy, theology, and meanings of letters mostly using the creativity of the Roman art. Â  Jackson explains that the Romanesque architecture was very influential to the Christian theology in that, in the 11th and the 12th centuries, all the major churches and monarchs could only be constructed using the laid down specifications that borrowed heavily from the architecture2. The art was embraced so that all the religious arts could offer easily recognizable buildings through the severity and restraint of the ornamentation used and in fact, as Jackson explains, the art and ornamentation were confined to the hands of the clerics who extensively used the art in the monastic architecture. It would, therefore, follow that; the use of the art in the monastic construction could only have a specific symbolism that the art conveyed to the early believers3. Stalley further explains that the Romanesque architecture to a large extent, although used for ornamentation and construction played a vital role in preserving the memories of saints and martyrs for commemoration by the faithfu l4. Therefore, by being used in the teaching of philosophy and theology as well as representation of the mystery and doctrine of the church, the Romanesque architecture became very vital in transforming and influencing the theology of the day in the medieval church. Â  

Monetary policy in EMU (European monetary Union) Essay

Monetary policy in EMU (European monetary Union) - Essay Example Initially, the European Union included 12 countries, but since its inception in 1992, the area has expanded to include 17 countries in total (European Union, 2012). The financial crisis of 2007-08 had enhanced the importance of the austere economic regulation by the European Union. This essay covers the monetary policy that has been adopted by the European Union, keeping in mind the various pressing issues that have been a matter of concern in the European countries like, price stability, real economy stabilization and its future plans regarding inflation targeting. Monetary Policy of the European Monetary Union Rationale behind price stability and real economic stabilization Price stability implies that the purchasing power of citizens and the value of their savings will be independent to the exchange rate fluctuations in cross-border travels and investments. The Monetary policy in the Euro zone is conducted by the European Central Bank and has direct impact on the price stability a nd the interest rates. The main objective of the monetary policy by the EMU is to keep the rate of inflation hovering around 2%, so that the value of Euro can be protected (European Union, 2012). This is achieved by altering the rate of interest of lending by the banks. The objective of price stability in monetary policy is an integral part of maintaining moderate levels of inflation, so that the economy can avoid the risk of running into deflation. The European Central Bank and EMU have always tried to maintain the price stability because of the strong notion that by maintaining the price stability, the economic activity and employment levels of the country can be improved. The maintenance of price stability by the EMU ensures that the price level of any particular good or service acts independent to the general price level of the economy. Price stability also ensures that the creditors can be relaxed as the prices will not rise in future and there will be no need of inflation risk premium to compensate the losses from inflation. Unnecessary hedging activities and distortions in the tax and social security system can also be avoided by maintenance of price stability (European Central Bank, 2011). The price stability contributes to the stabilization of the real economy. Monetary Policy prior to the crisis Before the onset of the financial crisis, the EMU had been successful in maintaining the inflation rate, averaging to 2.04% from January 1999 to August 2007 (European Central Bank, 2012). This bears a testimony to the fact that since the formation of Euro, the Euro Zone has been quite successful in achieving its preliminary goal of maintaining price stability. The most interesting fact about the price stability in the EU was that the inflation rates were not only low, but also had low macroeconomic volatility compared to other advanced countries of the world. Figure 1: Inflation Rates in the Advanced Economies (Source: European Central Bank, 2012) The above f igure shows the inflation rates in the industrialized economies of the world from 1999 to 2011. It can be seen that the monetary policy followed by the European Union, prior to the global financial crisis of 2007, has been in line with its objectives. In the course of time between 1999 and 2007, the European economy had undergone a lot of turmoil like, increasing global oil and food prices, increases in

Theory Analysis Essay Example for Free

Theory Analysis Essay The ultimate goal of theory evaluation is to determine the potential of the theory to scientific knowledge. Hardy †¢Theory evaluation: o meaningful and logical adequacy oOperational and empirical adequacy oTestability oGenerality oContribution to understanding oPredictability oPragmatic adequacy Logical adequacy (diagramming) identifying all theoretical terms (concepts, constructs, operational definitions, referents). Theory is a set of interrelated concepts and statements Emprical adequacy- single most important criterion for evaluating a theory applied in practice. Margaret Ellis Identified characteristics of significant theories Scope Complexity Testability Usefulness Implicit values of the theorist Information generation Meaningful terminology Choose two of the theory evaluation approaches that are discussed in chapter 5 of McEwen. Locate the original sources of these two theorists; some articles are in Course Resources for you. Compare and contrast the strategies that they advocate for theory evaluation. What commonalities do you see? How do the two approaches differ? Could you use a synthesized version of the two approaches? Share your insights with your group under Analytic approaches topic. All postings due by 10/12. I chose to compare and contrast the theory evaluation approaches of Rosemary Ellis and Margaret E. Hardy. Ellis uses various characteristics such as scope, complexity, testability, usefulness, implicit values, information generation and meaningful terminology to identify the significance of nursing theory (Ellis, 1968). Hardy on the other hand, has a different set of criterion for evaluation theory: meaningful and logical adequacy, operations and empirical adequacy, testability, generality, contribution to understanding, predictability and pragmatic adequacy (Hardy, 1973). I noticed more similarities than differences in the two theory evaluation approaches. The first similarity I noted was that both theorists referred to hypothesis as a defining component of the development of a theory. Ellis states that theories are insignificant if they do not generate a hypothesis of some sort (Ellis, 1968). Hardy states that a theory is made up of â€Å"hypothesis derived from axioms, initial hypothesis or postulates† (Hardy, 1973). The second similarity I found between both theorists was the characteristic of â€Å"usefulness† as a prime characteristic for the significance of a theory. Ellis states that theories are not considered significant if their usefulness is not explored to develop and guid e practice (Ellis, 1968). Similarly, Hardy has a characteristic of pragmatic adequacy, which is essentially the usefulness of a theory (Hardy, 1973). The third similarity I found was the characteristic of â€Å"information generation† used in both theory evaluation approaches. Ellis states that significant theories are â€Å"capable of generating a great deal of new information† (Ellis, 1968). Hardy’s characteristic of â€Å"contribution to understanding† is similar in that it explores new ideas, insight, and different ways of looking at the theory (Hardy, 1973). The last similarity I found was the shared characteristic of generality and scope. Ellis states that the broader the scope of the theory, the greater the significance of the theory (Ellis, 1968). Similarly, Hardy believes the more general a theory is; the more useful it is (Hardy, 1973). I noticed a few differences between the two theorists. The first difference I noted was their views on the testability of a theory. While Ellis lists testability as a characteristic, she does not require it to be significant to the evaluation of the theory. She goes so far as to say that â€Å"testability could be sacrificed for scope, complexity, and clinical usefulness† (Ellis, 1968). On the contrary, Hardy lists testability as an important attribute to evaluating a theory, and goes into further detail on how to measure the theory. The most obvious difference between the two approaches is the contrasting characteristics listed to evaluate the theory. Hardy lists logical adequacy, operational/empirical adequacy and predictability, while Ellis lists complexity, and implicit values of the theorist. I do think that there could be a synthesized version of the two approaches since they do share more similarities than differences. I would chose Margaret Hardy’s approach over Rosemary Ellis’s, due to the detailed characteristics listed in her evaluation method. I felt her points were more concise, and worked well together as a criterion for evaluating a theory. References: Ellis, R. (1968). Characteristics Of Significant Theories. Theory Development in Nursing, 17(3), 217-222. Hardy, M. (1973). Theories: Components, Development, Evaluation. Theoretical Foundations for Nursing, 23(2), 100-106.

Essay --

First Name: Francisca Last Name: Morel Subject: English 100 The Unbelievable Truth behind Video Games â€Å"Children began playing video games for increasing amount of times, and the games themselves became more graphically violent over time. Parents, educators, physicians, and researchers began to question what the impact of these changes might be† (qtd in The Effect of Video Games: What Parents Need to Know). Thus, for the past decades, video games have become the subject of many controversial debates and they have been â€Å"frequently criticized by parents, politicians, and sociologists.† However, their arguments against video games have overshadowed the importance of playing video games. In reality, playing video games can greatly contribute to the welfare of the American society. Video games are educationally beneficial for children. In the article â€Å"Effect of Video Games: What Parents Need to Know†, Dr. Douglas clearly stated that â€Å"video games are natural teachers. Children find them highly motivating; by virtue of their interactive nature, children are actively engaged with them; they provide repeated practice; and they include rewards for skillful play. †¦video games have been shown to teach children healthy skills and have been successful at imparting the attitudes, and behaviors that they were designed to teach.† For example, â€Å"playing a golf video game improved students' actual control of force when putting, even though the video game gave no bodily feedback on actual putting movement or force.† â€Å"Traditional games teach kids basic everyday skills, according to Ian... ...Although many politicians, parents, and sociologists have fought against video games, it can be concluded that playing video games can contribute to the welfare of our society. â€Æ' Work Cited Douglas, Gentile. "The Effects of Video Games on Children: What Parents Need to Know ." Pediatrics for Parents. Pediatrics for Parents, n.d. Web. 6 Oct 2013. . Steinbeirg, Scott. "The Benefits of Video Games." ABC News. ABC News, 26 Dec 2011. Web. 6 Oct 2013. . Gallagher, Danny. "7 Health Benefits of Playing Video Games." The Week. The Week , 10 March 2013. Web. 6 Oct 2013. .

Pro-Socratic Philosophers

Point: Pre-Socratic Philosophers * Answer the following questions in a 200- to 300-word response: * Which of the Pre-Socratic philosophers had the most compelling ideas? I believe that for their time, all held compelling ideas as to how things are in existence; the pre-Socratic philosophers that â€Å"stuck out† most to me were The Atomist. By far, The Atomist was the closets philosophers to what we the human race holds as true. * Briefly summarize the philosopher’s idea or ideas.The Atomists believed that everything that is anything (human, animal, etc) were made up and consisted of tiny beings called atoms. The atoms within are composed the same but have different shapes, size, and weight. They (the Atomist) also believed that atoms operated in strict accordance to physical law and that all movement was pre-determined. * Why do you find these ideas compelling? Include a practical example of one of the philosopher’s ideas in your response. The Atomists seemed to be highly intelligent for the era; this was a time before we had telescopes and before science was in infant stages.I found their ideas very compelling because they (the Atomists) were on the right path of science and what made up humans and other things. Though it would take years to confirm that things were made up of small particles called atoms, the Atomists believed in this belief and thus it was true and through science was proven to be true. I found that the Atomists believed that atoms are pre-determined and move in accordance to physical law, but I believe that atoms are of free will.

Flashbulb Memory

Flashbulb memory is a distinctive and vivid memory. They are also long lasting, accurate and detailed. These memories are from personal circumstances surrounding a person’s discovery of shocking events. People remember these memories with clear details of the emotions they were feeling, the place where they were, and what they were doing when they first heard the news. These memories are so vivid that people can even remember irrelevant details, such as, weather or what they were wearing. Even though a flashbulb memory could be from previous years early, people can remember these memories like they just happened yesterday.Although, people remember what events happened on these certain days they can’t remember what they did the day before or possibly the day after. The aspect that makes these memories a lifelong memory is the emotion behind the memory. The emotion felt at the time of the event is what turns the memory from a regular memory in to a flashbulb memory. Emoti onal reactions stimulate the release of hormones that have been shown to enhance the formation of long term memories (Saundra K. Ciccarelli, 2009) In addition, people remember emotional trauma better than they remember every day events.The initial shock or stress caused by these extreme events can cause people’s memory to be misread. It has been suggested by a newsletter titled, Memory Disorder Project (2006), that a person has to require participation of the amygdala to actually have had a flashbulb memory. Amygdala is a brain structure involved in emotional memory, and possibly other brain systems which regulates mood and alertness. Amygdala also can regulate the encoding, storage and retrieval of episodic memory. The amygdala may be vital to the retrieval of memories from emotional public events.There have been horrible events that have been perfect examples to research people’s flashbulb memories. In past decades, events such as assignations of John F. Kennedy, Mar tin Luther King Jr. , and the explosion of the space shuttle Challenger have been used to research flashbulb memories. In more current events, people’s memories of the 9/11 attacks have been studied to find out more information about flashbulb memories. An individual can have flashbulb memories of their personal life experiences too. Examples of these would possibly be the death of a family member, or just the opposite, the birth of a family member.A couple personal flashbulb memories I have are the memories of my son being born, and the moment my sister was diagnosed with a life changing brain malformation. I remember exactly what I was feeling, and even what I was wearing during the instant these events occurred. The psychologist, Colegrove started writing in 1899 described how middle-aged people remembered exactly what they were doing thirty-five years ago, when Abraham Lincoln was shot. In the late 1970’s two people Brown and Kulik, started doing research on flashb ulb memories.Their theories seemed to support the idea of adrenaline effects on memory. In the 1970’s the classic example of â€Å"Where were you when you heard about Kennedy being shot. †. Brown and Kulik introduced the term flashbulb memory, along with the first model of the process in developing flashbulb accounts. They suggested a flashbulb memory cannot occur without a high level of surprise or emotional arousal. The four models they proposed was the photographic model, comprehensive model, emotional-integrative model, and the importance driven emotional reactions model.Even further studies of flashbulb memories led people to look in to their accuracy of the actual events. A psychologist named Neisser argued that flashbulb memories are not as accurate as people think they are. He suggested that flashbulb memories are really like â€Å"life markers†. When a significant event occurs, it becomes part of your life history. â€Å"We know our world is changed fr om that moment on, but that doesn’t mean they are accurate. † (Flashbulb Memory). There have been disagreements debating whether flashbulb memories are accurate enough to be categorized in their own group.One reason over this disagreement is because flashbulb memories fade away over time, which is also how regular memories work. Another reason, flashbulb memories are doubted is that they can be very unstable. Flashbulbs can seem extremely vivid because the memories are often retold over and over again. They are not remembered as vividly without constantly thinking about it. â€Å"Accuracy reduces during the first three months and levels at about twelve months. †(Wikipedia, 2010). Flashbulb memories are sometimes classified as a type of autobiography memory.Autobiography memory is memory used in our everyday life. A memory goes through the first stage, encoding. At this stage, a set of mental operations that people perform on sensory information to convert that in formation into a form that is usable in the brain’s storage systems. The next step is storage, where a person’s brain holds on to information for an amount of time. Finally, the last memory process is retrieving. This step can be difficult, as well as impossible. During retrieval, memories can be distorted.Flashbulb memories can still be distorted like all other memories, but they seem to be more vivid in our minds. Normal everyday memories are entered in to our sensory memory. We perceive information with our senses. Then, information goes from sensory memory to short term memory. This transfer occurs because of selective attention, which is the ability to focus on only one stimulus from among all sensory input. Information then is processed in to long term memory. These are long lasting memories that can be stored for a long period of time until memory is retrieved.This transfer can only occur through elaborative rehearsal (Saundra K. Ciccarelli, 2009). Three items t hat are thought to have significant affects on flashbulb memories are consequentiality, distinctiveness of an event, and personal involvement and proximity. Consequentiality is the main characteristic for determining flashbulb memories. The consequence of an event is a particular variable in the making and keeping of flashbulb memory. Two models of flashbulb memories state that the consequence of an event determines the intensity of emotional reactions.Distinctiveness of an event has been considered to be a large contribution to the efficiency of flashbulb memories. Flashbulbs memories have been identified as unique and distinctive from everyday memories. It has been documented that people actually involved in the event are going to remember the event better over time. People who had no direct experience will not have a precise flashbulb memory of the event the way people who were involved or in close proximity (Wikipedia, 2010) Even through the controversy of how accurate flashbulb memories are, or how they work, no one can deny the mystery of them.A person in their own curiosity has to wonder how they remember so many details of the day of a impacting event on their life ten years ago, but they can’t remember what they ate the for breakfast yesterday morning. Flashbulb memory is an appropriate name for the phenomena because these memories can be like clear flashes of what really happened during the time when a person heard this information and felt the emotions at that time. Those emotions stimulating the amygdala makes the memory last longer.Through research of people’s reactions and memories of catastrophic public events, we as a society have learned more details about flashbulb memories. Even though, the research started over a century ago, there are many other unclear topics of flashbulb memories. Such as, exactly what types of memory a flashbulb memory is, how it is retrieved, and how is it different from regular everyday memories. As long as memories have consequentiality, distinctiveness, proximity, or involvement, it will be a long lasting memory. Until proved otherwise these memories will be known as flashbulb memories.

Diversities in reproductive modes and strategies amongst various reptile species The WritePass Journal

Diversities in reproductive modes and strategies amongst various reptile species Abstract Diversities in reproductive modes and strategies amongst various reptile species AbstractIntroductionReproductive cyclesSpermatogenesis and oogenesisCopulation and FertilizationEgg shellsOvoviviparityParthenogenesisParental body conditionReproductive behaviourParental careReproductive effort as a life history traitEnergy expenditure per progenyOffspring sizeSex determinationEnvironmental factors that affect reproductionConclusionsReferencesRelated Abstract In this paper we look at reptile reproduction and the how the different factors and processes involved vary in different species. We look at: Reproductive cycles Spermatogenesis and oogenesis Copulation and Fertilization Egg shells Ovoviviparity Viviparity Parthenogenesis Parental body condition Reproductive behaviour Parental care Reproductive effort as a life history trait Energy expenditure per progeny Offspring size Sex determination Environmental factors that affect reproduction Introduction Reproduction is a hugely important aspect of conservation, and with 106 species of reptile being classed as â€Å"Critically Endangered† on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species [1], every bit of knowledge could be useful for preventing a species becoming extinct. Reproduction is highly varied amongst the different species of reptile, and the three main reproductive modes are oviparity, ovoviviparity and viviparity. All the different modes and methods stem from the unique evolutionary challenges that each different species has encountered, having to adapt its reproductive processes to avoid extinction. Even amongst species that have similar reproductive modes, there are distinct variations in anatomy, physiology and behaviour, ranging from the obscure to the ridiculous, from self-fertilising, all-female lizard species, to â€Å"living fossils† that mate by cloacal apposition, due to the male’s lack of a penis. Other, less unusual, variations occur in reproductive cycles, clutch size, mating and parental behaviour. Reproductive cycles For reproduction to be successful, both the males and females need to be behaviourally and physiologically capable and ready to mate and reproduce. Reptiles tend to exhibit 3 different types of reproductive cycle : Associated cycle Dissociated cycle Continuous cycle Associated cycles are common and are frequently found in species that live in temperate zones and seasonally tropical environments, as these regions have relatively long periods suitable for reproduction . In species with an associated cycle, oogenesis and spermatogenesis are initiated simultaneously. High levels of sex hormones present tend to be associated with gamete maturation, mating and fertilization . An example is the green anole, Anolis carolinensis, from southeastern United States. In these, male and female gonads develop simultaneously in the spring, mating and egg production occur in the summer, and both male and female gonads regress in the autumn . Dissociated cycles occur in viviparous species that live in areas where there is a short breeding season, and the best time for mating may not necessarily be the best time for production of young . An example is the red-sided garter snakes, Thamnophis sirtalis parietalis. These mate after emerging from hibernation in the spring, but the gonads are not fully functional and sex steroids are at a low level. The sperm that was used in the mating was produced the previous summer and was stored in the male’s vas deferens. The female’s eggs mature during the summer, and become fertilized by the stored sperm from the spring mating [4]. This allows mating to occur at denning, when the males and females are together, and allows the snake to use the rest of its active time to mature and gestate [4, 6]. Continuous reproductive cycles allow the animal to reproduce at any point throughout the breeding season [5]. They commonly occur in species that live in tropical habitats . An example is the Amazonian Basin teiid, Neusticurus ecpleopus, where males have â€Å"mature spermatozoa in the right testis and epididymis during every month of the year†Ã‚   and so can reproduce all year round. Spermatogenesis and oogenesis Spermatogenesis in reptiles is similar to that of most other vertebrates . Spermatogenesis occurs in the reptile’s testes; however, it has been noted that reptilian germ cells are not organised into â€Å"consistent cellular associations† , and spermatids can be grouped with others from different mitotic and meiotic generations. In the six-lined racerunner, Aspidoscelis sexlineatus, spermatids from the male’s vas deferens have bent midpieces, whereas spermatids from the female’s oviducts have straight midpieces. This indicates that the final stage of maturation of the spermatids occurs in the female’s oviduct after copulation . Spermatogenesis in temperate species is limited to summer, when it is warmer and food more abundant. Therefore energy is more readily available for spermatogenesis, which is metabolically demanding . In contrast, spermatogenesis is a continuous process in tropical reptiles . Reptilian oogenesis occurs in the ovaries, which are the site of yolk deposition [12]. Vitellogenesis occurs in the maternal liver, and yolk consists of glycogen, lipoproteins and phosphorylated proteins [6]. The ova is released from the ovary surface and enters the oviduct at the ostium, the oviduct’s anterior opening [6]. Albumin deposition occurs in the oviduct and at a location which is dependent on species. Crocodilians and chelonians have albumin deposited on the ovum in the tube section of the oviduct, whereas in squamate reptiles it is deposited in the posterior part of the infundibulum . Copulation and Fertilization All reptile species have internal fertilization, but can accomplish this in different ways, depending on anatomy, environment and other factors . Sphenodontids, such as tuatara from New Zealand, first perform a conspicuous courtship, followed by copulation. They copulate by a process of cloacal apposition, as the males lack a distinctive intromittent organ ]. Some species, such as lacertid lizards   and all snakes, have a fully paired reproductive system, including intromittent organs, known as the hemipenes. They are independent and set on either side of the midline . The hemipenes develop as paired evaginations from the back of the cloaca and, when flaccid, they are inverted, but in order to mate, they fill with blood and evert . It is possible to identify species of a colubrid snake from the size, shape and weight of the hemipenes . The common garter snake, Thamnophis sirtalis, favours the right-hand hemipenis, much like humans being lefthanded or righthanded. The right hemipenis is wider and longer than the left . Male chelonians have a penis with a single â€Å"midline groove that lies between two longitudinal ridges†. These ridges allow the penis to engorge with blood when mating. The penis is not associated with the urinary system, and used purely for reproduction . After the male reptile has ejaculated, the females of many reptilian species can store the sperm if the reproductive cycle of the male and female do not coincide . In snakes, mating can occur several months in advance and the females can store the sperm in the infundibulum; an example is the South American rattlesnake, Crotalus durissus. Female lizards typically store the sperm in the utero-vaginal transition of the oviduct, as seen in the little brown skink, Scincella lateralis . Fertilization occurs when the ova enter the oviduct and meet the sperm . Egg shells Many species of reptile are oviparous and lay eggs, which can be divided into 3 main groups: Flexible-shelled eggs with little or no calcareous layer Flexible-shelled eggs with a thick, well-developed calcareous layer Rigid-shelled eggs with a well-developed calcareous layer The structure and thickness of the shell membrane and the mineral layer varies between species . Most squamate reptiles produce eggs that have a very flexible shell ; some even lack the calcareous mineral layer. The desert iguana, Dipsosaurus dorsalis, has only a fibrous shell membrane . Although the green iguana, Iguana iguana, also is missing the calcareous layer, it still retains â€Å"isolated crystals of calcareous material among the fibres of the shell membrane† . Some squamate reptile eggs may retain the calcareous layer, as in A. carolinensis, the eggs of which have a thin calcareous crust , organised into an irregular array of plaques, â€Å"with underlying fibrous layers of the membrane being visible between the plaques† . Turtles, including chelonids, chelydrids and most emydids, produce eggs that have a flexible shell, with a well-defined calcareous layer roughly the same thickness as the shell membrane . In sea turtles, the calcareous material forms a loosely organized open matrix, whereas in emydids and chelydrids, the eggshell has calcareous material that is much more highly structured . Rigid eggshells are laid by a number of different species, including: Crocodilians Some chelonians Many species of gecko Rigid eggs have a thick, well-developed calcareous layer forming the majority of the shell . For the embryo to survive inside the egg, the shell needs to be partially permeable allowing gaseous exchange. Early in development, the first gaseous exchange occurs in the yolk sac, and later in the chorioallantois . The majority of gaseous exchange occurs after oviposition, in the air in the nest chamber. The shells can be partially permeable to water, and different species manage this in various ways. In some, the egg will contain all the water required for embryo development at oviposition, as seen in: Crocodilians Tuataras Some turtle species Most squamate reptile eggs have a low water content at oviposition, and need to absorb water from the environment for successful development of the embryo. Ovoviviparity Ovoviviparity occurs when the embryo develops inside an egg, but the egg is retained inside the mother until ready to hatch . Despite the embryo being retained, there is no well-developed placenta and the remains of a shell can be found during early embryonic development . In the spiny lizard, Sceloporus jarrovi, ovulation and fertilization occur between late November and early December, but embryonic development is suspended for 4 months in the blastoderm stage. At this point, the embryo is encased in a shell and nutrients are supplied by the egg yolk. After development continues, placental formation occurs, and the yolk plays a lesser role. â€Å"Delayed development ensures an adequate food supply for the young at parturition and eliminates embryonic development during winter when adult food intake is limited† . The viviparous lizard, Lacerta vivipara, has some populations that are ovoviviparous, and these have â€Å"substantial hormone leakage between mother and offspring and between fetuses†, and so maternal hormone levels and stress are likely to have a significant impact on the embryonic development. Stress has been shown to influence thermal regulation , which can affect sexual determination of the offspring . Viviparity A viviparous reptile will retain the embryos in the oviduct until the neonate is fully formed and is born. The majority of reptiles are oviparous, but there are around 100 species of lizard and snake that are viviparous, including: Alligator lizards, Elgaria coerulea Boa constrictor, Boa constrictor Many geckos Many species of skink Turtle-headed sea snakes, Emydocephalus ijimae As there is a large variety of viviparous reptiles, it is not surprising that they exhibit â€Å"all grades of embryonic nutrition† , ranging from an almost total dependence on the stores of egg yolk, to a total reliance on maternal nutrient transfer. The South American skink, Mabuya heathi, is viviparous and produces newly ovulated eggs that are around 1mm in diameter. The embryo obtains more than 99% of its nutrition from placental transfer from the mother. Pregnancy lasts 8-12 months and the majority of the placental nutrient provision occurs in the last 3 months of gestation. There is no agreed theory why only squamate reptiles show viviparity and none in chelonians or crocodilians. Recent theories suggest that it evolved in colder climates, as the embryo can benefit from maternal thermoregulatory behaviour, such as basking, allowing the embryo to develop faster . This does not mean that viviparity is restricted to cooler regions, and a number of viviparous species of the genus Sceloporus, exist in both warm and cool regions of varying altitude in the south-west of America and in Mexico . Parthenogenesis The majority of reptile species reproduce sexually, but a small number of species are able to reproduce parthenogenetically. Asexual reptiles often have three common features: they originate from the hybridization of two species, reproduction is from clonal inheritance and all are female . Unisexual reptiles were first noted in 1935, when it was noted that there had never been any male fox gecko, Hemidactylus garnoti, observed . Parthenogenesis has been reported in over 30 species of squamate reptile, mostly xantusiids, gekkonids, lacertids and teiids . There is only one species of snake that is parthenogenetic, the Brahminy blind snake, Ramphotyphlops braminus. Parthenogenesis reduces the costs of reproduction, as there is no energy invested in the males, and each individual female can reproduce independently. It has the disadvantage that the progeny will not easily adapt to changes in environment. The parthenogenic females produce diploid eggs from unreduced gametes, so all offspring are genetically identical to the parent . Unisexual species occur as a result of hybridization, and â€Å"each unisexual vertebrate species combines at its inception much of the genetic diversity of two different sexual species† . There are no intermediate forms, backcross genome combinations or hybrid zones that involve the parental taxa . Parthenogenetic species do not need to reproduce sexually, but sexual behaviour does still occur. Some parthenogenetic species of whiptail lizard, Cnemidophorus, have been seen to mount others in pseudocopulation . This behaviour is almost identical to that of Cnemidophori lizards that are not parthenogenetic . This occurs under crowded conditions and probably is not related to reproduction . Parental body condition Reproduction is energy-expensive for most species, but the degree varies with species and gender . â€Å"Capital breeders† rely on energy that has been stored as fats or proteins, rather than relying on energy intake . This suggests that there is a threshold amount of energy that is required to be stored before the animal is capable of reproduction . In reptiles, it is often associated with ambush predators, such as the European asp, Vipera aspis. Only females have an energy threshold that is required prior to breeding, and female V. aspis will not attempt to reproduce until â€Å"they exceed a certain minimal level of body reserves for vitellogenesis† . In males, there is no energy-dependent threshold, and in V. aspis, there is no noticeable difference in body condition between reproductive and non-reproductive males . However, it has been noted that there is a decrease in feeding behaviour in male vipers during the breeding season, as males devote more time and energy to finding a mate. Captive breeding ofSaint Croix’s anole, Anolis acutus, in the Caribbean, has shown that an increase in food intake has no effect on the reproductive effort of females, but it did cause an increase for males. Reproductive effort is calculated as 100 x gonad weight / lean body weight . Another reptile where body size and condition show no effect on reproduction and mean egg clutch size is Rodrigues lava lizard, Eurolophosaurus nanuzae. In this species, female reproduction is instead influenced by photoperiod, long-term precipitation and temperature. â€Å"Income breeders† do not store energy for reproduction; instead reproduction is fuelled by feeding . It is usually a linear relationship, where an increase in the energy available results in an increase in reproductive output . The Oriental garden lizard, Calotes versicolor, can be found in regions where there is an abundance of food. It maintains a store of abdominal body fat, which is used to provide energy for vitellogenesis for the first clutch of the season. After this, they switch to being income breeders and rely on constant daily feeding to produce enough energy for any consequent clutches of eggs. Reproductive behaviour Every reptile species has its own specific reproductive behaviour associated with mating, nesting and caring for the young. In the male T. sirtalis parietalis, the choice of female is influenced by the characteristics and attributes of the female. In garter snakes, it has been shown that larger, heavier females are more desirable to the males and attract more courtship than smaller, thinner snakes]. It can be estimated that the intensity of the mating behaviour in most male reptiles is influenced by three factors: Phenotypic aspects that influence ability to compete Potential fitness benefits from mating Intensity of competition for mating Male T. sirtalis parietalis display most courtship behaviour when alone with a female, and if there are many males all competing for the same female then they show a significant reduction in courtship behaviour . In other reptile species, the male can have displays that could consist of coloured skin patches and loud calling or unusual activities, such as in the â€Å"push-up displays† of the male side-blotched lizard, Uta stansburiana . The disadvantage of this display is a reduced endurance in the leg muscle, which may be needed to escape a predator. Male ornate crevice-dragons, Ctenophorus ornatus, have brightly coloured patches of skin on their chests. These can be used to predict the size of a male’s territory and how many females live in that territory . Ritual combat allows males to compete for dominance prior to mating, and the winner often gets the female. These battles consist of entwining with and pushing the opponent to the ground to subdue him. This is seen in a number of species, including: Australian blacksnakes, Pseudechis porphyriacus Western rattlesnake, Crotalus viridis Many colubrids, including Chironius bicarinatus   Tuatara, Sphenodon punctatus Snouted cobras will refuse to mate unless they have performed a combat ritual with another male . It is rare that the female has a choice in partners, and in C. ornatus, the females show no preference amongst different males, despite the varying intensity and colour of the male’s display patches . This could mean that the colours are for male dominance competitions rather than luring a mate. Female choice has only been conclusively proven in a few species, including Lacerta agilis and several Anolis lizards . In leopard geckos, Eublepharis macularius, the sexual and agonistic behaviour can be affected by the gonadal sex and the incubation temperature, as they both affect sex steroid hormone release . Female leopard geckos that were incubated at an intermediate temperature were less â€Å"attractive† to the male geckos than females that were incubated at warmer temperatures . Parental care The benefit of parental care over a clutch of eggs could be to increase the survival rate of the eggs. The parental care may be in the form of defending the nest site, egg brooding by muscular thermogenesis or egg attendance. Different reptile species display differing amounts of parental care. The majority do not exhibit any parental care, such as turtles. Those exhibiting parental care include: Crocodilians Long-tailed skinks, Mabuya longicaudata Skinks of the genus Eumeces Pythons Asian forest tortoise, Manouria emys   Female crocodilians give large amounts of parental care to both the eggs and the young after hatching. The females will remain close to the nest and defend it from potential predators. The male is not present when the eggs are laid but there may still be some male role in nest protection. Young Nile crocodiles, Crocodylus niloticus, vocalise while still in the egg and continue to do so after hatching . These calls lead the mother to the nest, who then opens it, help the young escape from the shell and carries the hatched young to water . After hatching, the young may also give distress calls which would stimulate defensive behaviour by the adults . It is possible that the young could be calling to each other, to synchronise hatching and ensure survival from predators . Snakes exhibiting parental care usually do so in the form of egg attendance and defensive behaviour, usually in species that are either large or venomous, as these can easily defend the nests. Pythons participate in egg brooding which keeps the eggs warm by muscular thermogenesis, but in Children’s pythons, Antaresia childreni, excessive brooding can smother the eggs, causing hypoxia due to the partially permeable shells. This can give â€Å"smaller, slower and weaker† offspring than the offspring of pythons that do not egg-brood. Reproductive effort as a life history trait The amount of effort expended in reproduction can affect the survival of the animal or can affect future reproduction, and so a trade-off is required   In squamate reptiles, survival costs often result from the â€Å"risk of death associated with a reproductive event† , an example being that a gravid female has a reduced mobility and is easily predated upon. Reproduction requires increased energy and so the animal will require a higher food intake, both before copulation and during pregnancy. The foraging or hunting may make them more at risk from predators . Reproductive costs arise because the animal devotes energy to its current reproductive bout. This energy cannot be used for growth of the animal and will not give a higher fecundity during a later reproductive bout . In squamate reptiles, survival costs are considered more important than reproductive costs, and the trade-off between present and future fecundities may not be significant for many species The counter arguments to this are that â€Å"variation in the form of trade-offs relating offspring size and survival substantially affect relationships among clutch size, relative clutch mass, and lifetime reproductive success†, and that the way in which adult mortality is simulated in the mathematical model can significantly affect the conclusions about the potential fecundity trade-offs . The environment may affect the reproductive effort, destabilising the trade-offs. An example of this would be an individual that is in a poor condition, which could result in it getting a poor territory and suffering increased mortality or reduced fecundity as a result . Both survival and reproduction costs can be seen in the tree lizard, Urosaurus ornatus in New Mexico, which lays two clutches of eggs during the summer. It has been shown that reducing the eggs in the first clutch, by surgically reducing the number of follicles, resulted in females that had a higher survival rates, and larger second clutches . Many species with short life spans tend to have multiple clutches each year and have a high clutch mass to female mass ratio. However, many species with long life spans tend to be more restrained with their reproductive activities . Energy expenditure per progeny The energy invested in an egg by the mother has an effect on the size and health of the neonate in oviparous reptiles . Females can produce either large clutches of many small eggs or small clutches of large eggs . Female veiled chameleon, Chamaeleo calyptratus produce clutches of 20-40 eggs, each weighing 1.5g . Female Fiji banded iguana, Brachylophus fasciatus are the same size but produce clutches of 3-4 eggs, each weighing 10g . In some species, the eggs are smaller than optimum due to the structural constraint of the size of the female’s pelvis. The eggs of the painted turtle, Chrysemys picta are proportional to the width of the pelvis opening, so larger females lay larger eggs . By contrast, all lizards in the genus Anolis produce only one egg in each clutch, and this egg is sized so that it is the largest that can possibly fit through the pelvis . In several species of lizard, the clutch size is fixed and â€Å"the female is not able to divide the energy invested during the single reproductive bout into more offspring†. These species include: Anolis Gekkonidae Dibamidae Some skinks The size of the egg generally increases with the size of the species, but it is not directly proportional. Larger species have smaller offspring relative to their adult body size than do small species . Some species that have variable clutch sizes include: Crocodilians Tuataras Most turtles Many squamate retiles The total number of offspring in a clutch is ultimately dependent on the number of follicles produced, the proportion of follicles that become vitellogenic and the incidence of atresia of vitellogenic follicles prior to ovulation . It has been noted that other factors can affect the size of the clutch produced. An increased environmental temperature earlier in the year has been shown to lead to earlier breeding, as well as giving an increased clutch size, possibly due to â€Å"changes in the reproductive cycle and energy expenditure† . Offspring size All offspring produced by oviparous reptiles have characteristics that are â€Å"highly dependent upon the physical conditions that the embryo experiences prior to hatching† , such as its time of hatching, performance abilities,   size, shape, behaviour and thermoregulatory preferences. There is an inverse relationship between offspring size and clutch size, but this can be influenced by maternal body size . Studies into the spiny lizard, Sceloporus virgatus, have shown that there is no correlation between egg mass and maternal body mass . This is different to most turtle species, where the maximum possible egg size is limited by the diameter of the pelvic opening . Snakes are not constrained by the pelvic girdle, and so there is a positive correlation between the width of the egg laid and the female’s mass. Eggs in the same clutch tend to give uniform-sized offspring. There are rarely overly large or small offspring, possibly because eggs have been exposed to similar hydric and thermal conditions throughout embryogenesis, and so have all developed in the same way . The phenotype of the reptile hatching out of the egg can be significantly influenced by the â€Å"thermal regimes selected by the gravid female immediately prior to laying†, as well as food availability to the gravid female. If the female lays large numbers of eggs, then the energetic and nutritional variance within the clutch is   low for reptiles, compared with birds . Sex determination In reptile species, gender can be determined either by genetics or temperature In temperature-dependent sex determination of species that lay eggs, the temperature of the eggs is controlled by the nest temperature, as with egg-brooding pythons . In viviparous species, the temperature is controlled by basking. The thermoregulatory history of viviparous reptiles can affect a number of characteristics of the offspring, including: Size Phenotype Survival Locomotor performance Behaviour At temperatures that produce females, the enzyme aromatase is induced and converts testosterone to oestradiol, which binds to oestrogen receptors, triggering feminisation. At temperatures that produce males, the enzyme 5ÃŽ ±-reductase is induced and converts testosterone to dihydrotestosterone, which binds to androgen receptors, triggering differentiation of testes . In snapping turtles, eggs developing at â€Å"female producing temperatures† have a hormonal environment in which oestradiol concentrations decline at a slower rate than those at â€Å"mixed sex temperatures† or â€Å"male producing temperatures† . There are three patterns of temperature-dependent sex determination: Males at cool temperatures, females at warm temperatures Females at cool temperatures, males at warm temperatures Females at coolest and warmest temperatures, males at intermediate temperatures The range of temperatures that can give both sexes is typically only 1 °C and varies for each species. The temperature that gives 50% of each sex is known as the â€Å"pivotal temperature† . All crocodilian species exhibit temperature-dependent sex determination . In the black caiman, Caiman latirostris, incubating the eggs at 29-31 °C gives female offspring, and incubating at 33 °C gives male offspring. At 34.5 °C, both male and female are hatched In the American alligator, Alligator mississippiensis, there are three types of nesting site, which all have differing temperatures : Levee  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   ß 34 °C Wet marsh  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   ß 30 °C Dry marsh  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   ß 34 °C on top and 30 °C at peripheries Alligators nesting in wet marshes produce nearly 100% female offspring, and females â€Å"tend to seek a temperature environment that is as close as possible to that of their own incubation† . This gives a skewed sex ratio of nearly 10 female alligators to 1 male. Temperature-dependent sex determination was originally thought to occur exclusively in species that lack sex chromosomes, but it has been shown to co-exist with genetic-dependent sex determination in some species, including geckos and some skinks Environmental factors that affect reproduction It has been shown that environmental and nest temperatures can affect the gender of the hatchlings , and variations in temperature can also affect factors such as foraging, breeding seasons and hibernation . Climate warming in China has been shown to shift the oviposition dates of the Chinese alligator, Alligator sinensis, to earlier in the year, as well as to increase the mean clutch size . Ecological events in the area inhabited by a reptile can also affect the reproduction, and human land-management can be a major factor. The desert horned lizard, Phrynosoma platyrhinos, will prefer to inhabit areas where cattle grazing has occurred, presumably due to an abundance of prey species. This would mean that there would be increased reproductive rates. In southern Texas, burning scrubland in the winter is commonplace, and can have an effect on the reptile populations. â€Å"Winter burning provides an increase in food resources and leads to increased survival of Texas horned lizards, Phrynosoma cornutum, in the second growing season after fire† . In other cases, habitat loss may have an adverse effect on the reproduction of reptiles. In Argentina, deforestation has been shown to have an effect on the Argentine boa constrictor, Boa constrictor occidentalis, particularly causing a decrease in body condition, clutch size and testicular volume . Conclusions Species variations in reptile reproduction may be quite large, with some species able to reproduce at any time throughout the year and others having dissociative reproductive cycles where the female can â€Å"store† the male’s sperm . Other aspects are typically less varied; spermatogenesis and oogenesis are similar in most species . Anatomical species differences can be seen in the structure of the male reproductive organs. Some, such as tuatara lack a penis at all , whereas snakes have two hemipenes . In testudines the penis is used solely for reproduction and is not even connected to the urinary tract . Reptilian life-history traits can vary between species and include clutch size, offspring size and mode of parity. Some reptile species are oviparous and lay eggs, such as the pit viper, Trimeresurus flavoviridis , some oviparous species are even parthenogenetic and all-female. Others are ovoviviparous, like S. jarrovi and others are viviparous and produce live young, such as M. heathi . Reproductive behaviour also varies between species and can help the reptile select a suitable mate   and parental care can help ensure the survival of the offspring, even if it is detrimental to the health of the parent . 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